Examining Deforestation Of The Amazon Rainforest Environmental Sciences Essay

Examining Deforestation Of The Amazon Rainforest Environmental Sciences Essay The amazon Rainforest is one of the richest areas on Earth biodiversity wise and possesses many endemics species of fauna and flora. The Amazon also plays an human population has grown, and demands in soybeans, cattle and wood as increased over time, the Amazon rainforest has been selected for deforestation. Recent concerns have arisen over the last decades emphasizing the problems deforestation causes especially biologically. This problem has been further underlined as concerns over global climate change have arisen. The Amazon forest is the greatest tropical forest in size as it covers an area over seven million square kilometres and is found in ten countries of South America. Motives of deforestation, rates, history Most of the Amazon Basin ( >70%) is found in Brazil ; therefore most of our study will focus on the Brazilian Amazon. Starting in the late 1950s, for the purpose of developing the western and northern parts of Brazil many new roads were constructed which constituted a direct access to the Amazon tropical forest. The construction of these routes along with other incentives ( such as cattle ranching , hydro electric project, timber extraction) was aimed at expanding development and integrating the whole territory into the countrys economy. The program was successful as people moved along these large highways; for example 2 million people moved along the Belem-Brasilia in the first 20 years of its construction. The settlement along the major highways and within the Amazon forest was highly unorganized which led to long term unnoticed deforestation. Overtime the rates of deforestation have increased from the 1970s to the 2003-2004 and since then have decreased. The peak in 2002-2004 was the highest rate of forest clearing for a three year period: 52 670 km ² were cleared. The 2008-2009 area cleared totalizes for 7008 km ². The literature seems to agree on the motives for deforestation although the importance of small farmers in the process is debated . ( K.R Birby , P. Fearnside). The motives for deforestation are multiple: contrarily to common belief, the biggest reason behind clearing in cattle ranching secondly, is small farmer exploitation then, logging, and recently soybean and palm oil plantations have led to deforestation. The reason behind this hierarchy and cattle ranching as being the number one reason behind forest clearing is due to multiple state incentives. These incentives made cattle ranching one of the few profitable product to rise in the Amazon. Under the Brazilian law, clearing the land in order to install pasture is characterised as effective. (K.R Kirby). Cattle ranching is one of the most popular use of land in the Amazon as it is not a labour intensive job , by products can be used ( such as milk) , and it is produces offspring. Compared to crops, the main advantage of cattle ra nching is that cattle ranching are independent of weather conditions. Small farmers also play an important role in the clearing of the land as they apply slash and burn method in order to create fertile land to grow their crops on. As farmers need for more land, they continuously increase their property. K.R Kirby has calculated that on average a small farmer clears 1 ha of forest per year. Furthermore, tropical soils are not fertile and fail at the long term production of crops, thus after 2-3 years the land is unusable and new land has to be slashed and burned. Today as agricultural financing has been more readily available in the Amazon compared to other regions in Brazil, soybeans farmers are pushing to the North. As the price for soybean has increased, it has become one of the most profitable crops to plant in the Amazon. A large part of the soybean production is used for export (as foreign currency) therefore greatly encouraged by the state which even plans on building new roads and infrastructure in order to expand the production. Although not broadly mentioned in the literature, it is important to also underline the logging activities undergoing in the Amazon. JA Foley et al mention that the logging has recently been recognized as one major source of land change in the Amazon. Although selective logging is comparatively not as ecologically destructive as cattle grazing or pasture, it has been shown that logging destroyed the same amount of forest as the area cleared for other activities. Indeed, selective logging leaves behind a fraction of the natural forest and allows some natural regeneration; not completely destroying the ecosystem. Biodiversity effects: The clearing of thousands of km ² of land is not at any cost. The Amazon is one the worlds richest zone in terms of biodiversity and number of endemic species. Being one of the largest forests in the world the tropical Amazon forest constitutes an important carbon sink for the integrity of the planet. Scientists have become aware of the importance of conserving the forest because of the numerous ecosystem services it provides. It is difficult to understand and quantify the ecosystem services provided by an ecosystem. As Fearnside explains, it is complicated to put a value on an ecosystem service. An obvious way of calculating the value of the ecosystem is using the profit of the good produced in the given area. This method does not take into account the future damage that could occur due to the abuse of the ecosystem. Indeed we taking the example of forest clearing , we can use the value of the good which will be produced on the area cleared but on a large scale that value does not take into account the habitat destruction of species. Often times we put a price on ecosystem services in order to emphasize the urgency of taking conservation actions, putting fines on illegal land used. Based on the literature there are many ecosystem services provided by the Amazon rainforest. Namely the most important ecosystem services are carbon sequestering, water flow of the Amazon River, air circulation patterns, the spread of water borne disease , fires , invasion by exotic species and most importantly , and biodiversity loss. The clearing of Amazon might influence the hydrological regime of the area because the forest regulates the quantity of water flowing into the river as well as the nutrient content. The quantity of water increases greatly overall because there is no interception by plants leading to much more surface runoff and less percolation in the soil. Indeed it has been observed in the Tocantins river basin, the changes during the 30 years period (1960-1990) in land cover have led to an approximate 25% increase in the river discharge during the same period although there were no changes in the precipitation regime. Over the long term, scientists are worried that the evaporation budget will change so much as to change global patterns of air circulation. Vector-borne diseases increase due to the loss of vegetation and due to an increase in the number of mosquitoes (which are common vectors of diseases). Forested areas allow for more control of the disease though population control of infected animals, their hosts and intermediate disease vector. In South America, the most important disease transmitted by mosquitoes is malaria. A study in Peru has shown that Anopheles darling mosquito species are more susceptible to biting as the land cover decreases. The study found that when the area is deforestated by more than 20%, mosquitoes have a tendency to bit more than in forested areas. The reason for this increase is due to the preference of mosquitoes to breed in areas with shrubs or grasslands. ( A.M. Vittor) One of the most striking effects on deforestation is the loss of biodiversity. No papers truly estimated the loss of biodiversity due to deforestation. But based on the literature we can estimate the number of species potentially targeted by deforestation. The Brazilian Amazon is classified as one of the five megadiversity countries by the WWF (World Wild Fund) (P.Fearnside). Brazil has over 50  000 angiosperm plant species, over 400 species of mammals, over 1500 species of birds, over 500 species of amphibians, over 400 species of butterfly and over 70 species of reptiles. Deforestation can lead to changes in biodiversitys ecological niches, habitat fragmentation, or even invasion of exotic species. A major concern has arisen amongst ecologists due to the threat of deforestation on biodiversity hotspots. Indeed it has been observed in some cases that biodiversity hotpsots overlap the deforestation hotpsots. These latter are areas where deforestation occurs suddenly, locally and greatly pushed by demographic factors. The danger for the ecosystems when these two hotspots overlap is the extensive loss of habitat for the fauna and flora. Indeed, deforestation hotspots lead to much habitat fragmentation as many harvesters carry on their activity without much knowledge on the ecosystem and the implications of deforesting (Etter et al 2006). Moreover, it has been proven that a threshold exists for a species to survive. Species need enough area in order to reproduce and forage without it a population cannot sustain and is determined to extinguish. Much of the deforestation trends are not managed and very spontaneous, leading to patches of deforested land and often times the minimum thre shold is surpassed threatening the survival of many generations. As underlined in Etter et al., no significant studies have been consolidated in order to better understand the overlapping of deforestation and biodiversity hotspots; suggesting more data to be collected. Indeed without data there cannot be any consensus on the conversation policies to protect the Amazons ecosystem. Another paper also suggests the idea that better inventories should be complied in order to understand the forests composition and to better manage the area based on the species autoecology. Furthermore the paper underlines the importance of thorough and precise data entries with identical quantification measurements. These factors are all very important in the inventory process in order to build credible dataset on which policy makers can rely upon (Biscaia de Lacerda 2010). Deforestation in the context of Global Climate Change A major concern of the 21st century is the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and the consequences on the worlds biomes. The role of the Amazon forest in the global carbon cycle is storage of organic carbon in the soil or in plants. The process through which plants take in CO2 is photosynthesis storing it afterwards in the biomass under the form of leaves, branches, roots, flowers and other structural tree components. The destruction of the Amazon makes it an emitter of carbon rather than a sink. Indeed because of land cover changes, carbon is no longer stored. Per se, carbon is not emitted from the forest rather carbon is not taken up by the trees anymore resulting in a net surplus of CO2 levels in the atmosphere. Furthermore the necessary machinery used for deforestation as well as the by-products of wood and the processing of trees in factories also contribute to increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Some studies have tried to understand the changes which would occur if CO2 levels increased and deforestated areas kept increasing. The outcome results in many effects linked to changes in surface albedo, leaf area index, and surface roughness and texture (Compounding). In the study, the CO2 levels were doubled, increasing the CO2 concentration to 660 ppm. The IPCCs projection on CO2 levels project that 660 ppm will be reached by the end of the century under the least severe scenario: A1B which predicts: A future world of very rapid economic growth, low population growth and rapid introduction of new and more efficient technology. Major underlying themes are economic and cultural convergence and capacity building, with a substantial reduction in regional differences in per capita income. In this world, people pursue personal wealth rather than environmental quality. ( IPCC http://www.ipcc-data.org/ddc_co2.html). The sole effect of doubling CO2 concentration in the atmosphere results in a 2.6 T °C increase in temperature, increase in precipitation by 9.0 mm per month , and increase in -the net longwave radiation at the landsurface by 4.5 W m ­- ² subsequently increasing the surface evapotranspiration. There is not a great difference for all the factors when studying the present deforestation climate with the future warmed climate combined with deforestation, directly pointing to the fact that deforestation is the main source of deregulation in the climate (Figure 2). Indeed most changes due to increased CO2 levels are felt in the mid-high latitudes. Figure 2( Zhang et al.)

In the Land of the Free Essay

In the Land of the Free Since the first wave of Chinese immigration to the United States in 1850s, the Chinese experienced discrimination and often overt racism. According to Holland, during 1870s, a large number of Chinese laborers flooded into American job market after the completion of transcontinental railroads. Since the Chinese laborers were willing to work for lower wages, they took jobs away from white workers which caused negative feeling toward Chinese. At the same time, the economic downturn and the increasing unemployment rate led to more heightened outcries against Chinese immigrants. Eventually, the United States government passed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, a law that restricted the number of Chinese entering into America. (Holland 2007) Sui Sin Far, the first fiction writer of Asian descent, wrote an impressive story called â€Å"In the Land of the Free†, which portraits the harsh treatment a Chinese immigrant couple faced and the tremendous pain they suffered due to racism and discrimination upon entering the United States in the late 1800s. The story unfolded with a loving, caring and self-sacrificed Chinese young woman named Lae Choo, who was so excited about the reunion with her husband, Hom Hing, a legal Chinese merchant in the United States. Traced back to three years before, when Hom Hing learned his wife was pregnant, he decided to send Lae Choo back to their native country, China, so they would have their first baby, the little one, born there. They had been separated for three years since then, and this was the first time the little one would see his father. But misfortune fell upon this couple–upon entering the land of America, the little one was denied the entry to the U. S. The reason was that the little one was born in China and there was no paperwork to verify he was born to Lae Choo and Hom Hing. The little one was taken away by the US custom officers. The winter had passed, but the couple still couldn’t get their baby back. Lae Choo got into a depression, going to the point of starving herself. At the end, she had to pay a lawyer with her entire life saving except one ring, a gift from Hom Hing for her pregnancy, to get her baby back from the mission. But the ending was heartbreaking that the little one couldn’t recognize his mother after nine month separation. â€Å"In the Land of the Free†, with it darkly ironic title, gives readers deep insights into the Chinese immigrants’ experience in America in late 1800s. The United States is a country with reputation for liberty, and Government is supposed to help promote and protect human rights. But throughout the story, readers only see the fact that rigid Government policy infringed upon the couple and the baby’s human rights. Hong Hing couple had never expected that their basic human rights– the rights of parents to be with their children was deprived as soon as the wife and the baby arrived this country. In the story, the nine month of forcible separation between Hong Hing couple and their son shows the complete absence of compassion in the American government. During the nine month, the government didn’t make any progress except for keeping sending 16 same letters to Hong Hing couple. And without the lawyer’s interference, it might take years for Hong Hing couple to get their baby back. The government’s total indifference to the spilt of an immigrant family was inhuman and cruel. In the story the author also demonstrates the human costs of U. S. Government’s discriminatory policy. Lae Choo, a caring, loving and self-sacrificed Chinese young woman, couldn’t bear the pain of the separation from her son, almost starving herself to death. The words she said â€Å"how could I close my eyes with my arms empty† (P 151) express the pain which Chinese immigrants underwent in the United States. For many Chinese immigrants like Hong Hing couple, there might have been economic opportunity in America, but the discrimination they faced made life phenomenally challenging. Besides Chinese Exclusion Act, during the late 1800s, federal, state and local government enacted a series of other discriminatory law, such as Sidewalk Ordinance, Cubic Air Ordinance, and Queue Ordinance, etc, which specifically targeted Chinese immigrants. (cr. nps. gov, 2004) Hong Hing family just represents the thousands of victims of discriminatory laws. In addition, Lae Choo spend all of her money on legal action pleading with the â€Å"Great Government at Washington† to return her son. When the little one was finally returned, the family became impoverished. The experience taught the couple that the reality of life in America was brutal. Government policy could bring an immigrant family to a ruin. In the story, the author also describes the other form of discrimination the couple faced while living in the United States. As new immigrants, Hong Hing couple lacked the ability to speak fluent English and write appropriate letters to solve the problem they faced. Since they were new to the country, they didn’t know how to advocate for themselves through the right channel. Relying on a white lawyer was their only hope to get the little one back as soon as possible. The lawyer was supposed to be there to help them; unfortunately he was trying to take advantage of them. The sentences â€Å"The young man eyed the Chinese merchant furtively,† (P152) and â€Å"He had a proposition to make and was pondering whether or not the time was opportune,†(P 152) tells readers the lawyer was thinking about cheating and exploiting them. He could have helped the family reunion early, but he didn’t do that until the couple were willing pay him at a very high price. The lawyer didn’t care about their problem and was only thinking about his idea to get money as much as possible. Instead of making money and becoming successful in the land of opportunity, the couple lost all of their money to him. In the Land of the Free is a strong and powerful work that takes readers into the painful life of a Chinese immigrant family of the time. The story helps readers truly understand the hardships Ch

Identify Opportunity Costs

Unlike most costs discussed in economics, an opportunity cost doesnt necessarily involve money. The opportunity cost of any action is simply the next best alternative to that action: What you would have done if you didnt make the choice that you made? The notion of opportunity cost is critical to the idea that the true cost of anything is the sum of all the things that you have to give up. Opportunity cost  considers only the next best  alternative to an action, not the entire set of alternatives, and takes into account all of the differences between the two choices. We  actually deal  with the concept of opportunity cost every day. For example, options for a day off work might include going to the movies, staying home to watch a baseball game, or going out to coffee with friends. Choosing to go to the movies means the opportunity cost of that action is the second choice. Explicit Versus Implicit Opportunity Costs Generally, making choices includes two types of cost: explicit and implicit. Explicit costs are monetary expenses, while implicit costs are intangible and therefore hard to account for. In some cases, such as weekend plans, the notion of opportunity cost includes only these forgone alternatives or implicit costs. But in others, such as a businesss profit maximization, opportunity cost refers to the difference in the  total of this type of implicit cost and the more typical explicit monetary cost between the first choice and the next best alternative. Analyzing Opportunity Costs The concept of opportunity cost is particularly important because, in economics, almost all business costs include some quantification of opportunity cost. To make decisions, we must consider benefits and costs, and we often do this through marginal analysis. Firms maximize profits by weighing marginal revenue against marginal cost. What will make the most money when considering the operating costs?  The opportunity cost of an investment would involve the difference between the return on the chosen investment and the return on the other investment. Likewise, individuals weigh personal opportunity costs in everyday life, and these often include as many implicit costs as explicit. For example, weighing job offers  includes  analyzing more perks than just wages. A higher-paying job isnt always the chosen option because when you factor in benefits like health care, time off, location, work duties, and happiness, a lower-paying job might be a better fit. In this scenario, the difference in wages would be part of the opportunity cost, but not all of it. Likewise, working additional hours at a job offers more in wages earned but comes at the expense of more time to do things outside of work, which is an opportunity cost of employment.

MCAT Fee Assistance Program (FAP)

When you find yourself interested in medical school, and as such, the MCAT exam, but also find yourself a little lacking in the funds necessary  to get you there, then the AAMC offers you a way to get what you want without the hefty price tag attached: The Fee Assistance Program or FAP. Below, youll find out the basics about the Fee Assistance Program, the benefits of the program and the ways to obtain assistance if you qualify. Read on for the details before you register! Fee Assistance Basics The AAMC started the Fee Assistance Program to help those students who wanted to apply to medical school with the American Medical School Application Service (AMCAS) or take the MCAT, but couldnt do so because the cost of both was too prohibitive. Medical schools that accept the AMCAS, also decided to help those applicants out, too. Students who have received aid from the AAMC through the Fee Assistance Program, often get their application fees waived, too. Bonus! Benefits So, what exactly is offered with the Fee Assistance Program? Starting on January 2, 2014, recipients of the FAP will get the following: A reduction in the MCAT registration feeA reduction in the MCAT rescheduling fee if it is requiredA free copy of the MCAT prep book, The Official Guide to the MCAT Exam (worth about $30)A free authorization code to The Official MCAT Self-Assessment package (worth about $104).Free admission to MSAR (Medical School Admission Requirements), a suite of guides to help students prepare for medical school and the application process (worth about $22)A waiver for all AMCAS fees for up to 15 medical schools (worth about $650) Please keep in mind that these benefits are not retroactive. For example, if youve taken the MCAT and wish to apply to medical schools and have your fees waived, even if you are accepted into the FAP, your MCAT registration fees will not be refunded. They do, however, last five years. So, if youre thinking of taking the MCAT, but youre unsure about when youd like to apply to medical school, go ahead and apply for FAP if you think youll qualify because you have time to make your decision before your benefits run out. Eligibility With benefits as fantastic as those, obviously, everyone cannot qualify. So, what are the qualifications for the program? The AAMC considers the Department of Health and Human Services poverty level guidelines when making their fee assistance decisions. If your familys income is 300%  or less of the poverty level for the previous year for your family size, then you will be automatically approved for fee assistance. You must also be a U.S. citizen, a lawful permanent resident (LPR) of the United States (Green Card holder), or have been granted refugee/asylum status by the U.S. government. Obtaining Assistance If you believe youre eligible for assistance, then youll need to fill out an FAP application, providing the following information: Personal information: Your financial information (adjusted gross income and non-taxable income). Youll include your spouses financial information if applicable, as well.Parental information: Your parents financial information (adjusted gross income and non-taxable income) regardless of whether youre dependent or not and regardless of your age. The only time you will not provide this information is if your parents are deceased.Supporting documentation: Tax filers must provide a copy of their Federal Income Tax Forms (1040, 1040A, 1040EZ, etc.) for the previous calendar year. Non-tax filers are required to provide copies of W-2 forms for the previous calendar year. Students whose primary source of support was educational aid/scholarships must provide a copy of their Financial Aid Award Letter.Cover letter: You and your parents must print and sign the FAP Supporting Documentation Cover Letter. The AAMC requests that you allow approximately 15 days for final FAP decisions. Submitting Your Application Ready to apply? Complete your FAP application here!